Myanmar is the world’s largest supplier of heavy rare earths, a subset of 17 elements used in the manufacture of wind turbines and electric vehicles. The country’s rare earth mining industry operates in secret, with no public records of active permits or companies involved. Worksites are heavily guarded, and only a handful of journalists have reported on the ground over the past decade.
Despite the secrecy, news has trickled out of the devastating environmental and social impacts of rare earth mining in Myanmar. Local media have documented at least five fatal landslides at rare earth mining sites in recent years, and a local human rights group reported that a Chinese rare earth mining company in Myanmar’s eastern Shan State was using prisoners and human trafficking victims for forced labor.
The rare earth mining industry in Myanmar is linked to the country’s long-running civil war. The military and ethnic armies controlling territory along the country’s borders take taxes from resources, including jade, timber, and gold. Their affiliated companies profit directly from these industries, and armed groups that agreed not to fight against the military have been rewarded with a higher degree of autonomy to do business.
China’s customs reports show that from 2017 to 2024, it imported more than 320,000 tons of rare earths from Myanmar, or roughly two-thirds of its total imports. According to the environmental nonprofit Global Witness, Myanmar surpassed China as the world’s largest source of heavy rare earths in 2021.
Rare earth mining in Myanmar involves a process called in-situ leaching, which carries substantial environmental and public health risks. Chemical leaks and wastewater discharge can turn rivers toxic, reduce biodiversity, and expose communities to high levels of rare earth elements and heavy metals in crops. Chronic exposure can affect the brain, liver, bones, and immune systems, and can be extremely detrimental during childhood development.
Regan Kwan, a research analyst at the Stimson Center, studies the impacts of rare earth mining in Southeast Asia. He notes that the method used in Myanmar poses significant risks to the environment and public health. They are concerned about the long-term effects of this type of mining.
As the world’s superpowers seek control over rare earth supply chains, their demand is indirectly funding conflict actors in Myanmar.
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China, which holds more than 90% of the world’s rare earth processing capacity, began restricting its exports of heavy rare earths last year in response to US tariffs.
The shutoff left global economies scrambling to find new ways to procure them, and prompted new deals and partnerships. As the world quickens its shift away from fossil fuels, offshore wind turbines and electric vehicles would account for nearly two-thirds of global demand for neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets by 2030, according to the US Department of Energy.
Researchers have found that rare earth extraction tends to occur at the margins of state and corporate power, with those profiting from extraction often using narratives of untapped wealth and critical strategic needs to justify their expansion. The origin story of rare earth mining in Myanmar is difficult to pinpoint, but satellite images and Chinese import data show that it reached an industrial scale around 2017.
Ben Hardman, legal director of EarthRights International, notes that companies are consistently using Myanmar as a sacrifice zone. The country’s role as a hub for environmental exploitation is undisputed, and the military’s illegitimate claim to power and involvement in criminal enterprises have further contributed to the problem.
Myanmar’s situation is complex, involving geopolitical tensions, environmental degradation, and human rights abuses. As the world’s demand for rare earths continues to grow, it is essential to consider the hidden costs of this extraction and the impact it has on local communities and the environment.
They are also exploring new technologies, such as dark fiber networks, to support the growth of industries that rely on rare earths.